History of inclusive design:investigation of the historical progression of
inclusive design, its contemporary status, and future potential
AbstractThis dissertation explores the history of inclusive design, from its early beginnings to its contemporary status,and its future potential. Inclusive design, also known as universal design, refers to the process of designing products, environments, and services that are accessible and usable by individuals of all abilities and ages. The study begins with an investigation of the historical progression of inclusive design, examining the social, political, and ethical factors that have influenced its development. The research also analyses the impact of major events, such as the disability rights movement, on the evolution of inclusive design.
The dissertation then examines the contemporary status of inclusive design, reviewing the current state of research and practice, as well as exploring the challenges and opportunities that exist in implementing inclusive design principles. This section of the research evaluates the impact of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and the internet of things, on the design process, and discusses how inclusive design can contribute to the development of more equitable and sustainable societies.
Finally, the study considers the future potential of inclusive design, identifying emerging trends and areas for further research. The research proposes that inclusive design has the potential to drive innovation in areas such as healthcare, transportation, and education, and that it can contribute to the creation of more sociallyand environmentally responsible societies. The dissertation concludes with a call for continued research and collaboration across disciplines to further advance the practice of inclusive design.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Inclusive design is a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of creating products and services that are accessible and usable by as many people as possible, regardless of their abilities,disabilities, or other differences (Story, Mueller, & Mace, 1998). This includes people with physical,sensory, or cognitive impairments, as well as those who speak different languages or come fromdifferent cultural backgrounds (Hendricks, 2017). Inclusive design aims to eliminate barriers and create products and services that are not only accessible, but also enjoyable and beneficial for allusers (Connell et al., 1997).
The history of inclusive design can be traced back to the mid-20th century, when the disabilityrights movement gained momentum and pushed for greater accessibility in public spaces and transportation (Barnes & Mercer, 2005). This movement eventually led to the development of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, which set standards for accessibility in public accommodations, employment, and transportation (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990).
In the field of design, the concept of universal design emerged in the 1980s, which emphasized the importance of designing products and spaces that could be used by the widest possible rangeof people, without the need for adaptation or specialized features (Mace et al., 1991). This philosophy was further developed in the 1990s by architect Ron Mace and his colleagues, whocoined the term "universal design" and developed a set of principles for creating inclusive productsand environments (Connell et al., 1997).
In the early 2000s, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) introduced the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), which provided a set of guidelines for making websites more accessible to people with disabilities (Caldwell et al., 2008). This was a significant step forward in the history of inclusive design, as it brought accessibility to the forefront of web design and helped to establish standards and best practices for creating accessible websites (Henry, 2007).
Today, inclusive design is increasingly seen as an essential part of creating products and servicesthat are not only accessible, but also enjoyable and beneficial for all users (Hendricks, 2017). Astechnology continues to evolve and become more integrated into our daily lives, the importance of inclusive design will only continue to grow (Fletcher-Watson et al., 2019).
1.2 Aims and Objectives
The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the historical progression of inclusive design, including its contemporary status and future potential. To accomplish this, the dissertation willendeavor to achieve the following objectives:
v Studying the history and current state of inclusive design
v Providing insights into the challenges and opportunities faced by designers and other stakeholders in creating a more inclusive world.
1.3 Research questions and hypotheses
Inclusive design is a burgeoning field of inquiry and practice concerned with creating products, services, and environments that can be accessed and utilized by the widest possible range of individuals. Within this domain, there exist several key research questions that require attention. For instance, how can designers effectively integrate inclusive design principles into the product development process? What are the most effective methodologies for conducting user research with diverse populations? How can inclusive design strategies be applied to physical spaces and built environments, such as public transportation or urban infrastructure?
Furthermore, hypotheses in this field include the notion that involving diverse perspectives in the design process can lead to more effective and well-received solutions, and that prioritizinguser autonomy and agency in the design process can lead to better outcomes for all individuals, regardless of background or ability.
Ultimately, exploring these research questions and hypotheses can shed light on the most effective approaches for creating inclusive design solutions that promote accessibility, equity, and participationfor all individuals.
1.4 Significance of study
The study of inclusive design is significant for several reasons. One of the most compelling reasons is that it has the potential to promote greater accessibility, equity, and participation formarginalized groups. For instance, by designing products, services, and environments that can be used by a wider range of individuals, inclusive design can help break down barriers that prevent people with disabilities or other marginalized groups from fully participating in society. This can have positive social and economic impacts, as it can lead to greater inclusion and empowerment for marginalized groups.
Moreover, inclusive design can also benefit companies by creating more effective and profitableproducts. By expanding their target markets and appealing to a wider range of users, companies can increase their revenue and competitive advantage. This is particularly relevant in today's globaleconomy, where companies are increasingly competing for customers with diverse backgrounds and needs.
In addition, inclusive design can foster greater innovation and creativity in the design process. By bringing together diverse perspectives and experiences, designers can develop morecreative and effective solutions to complex problems. This can lead to the development of newproducts, services, and environments that benefit all individuals, regardless of their background orability.
Finally, studying inclusive design can provide insights into the most effective ways to createsolutions that meet the needs of all individuals. This can have implications for a range of fields, including product design, architecture, urban planning, and public
policy. By understanding how to create solutions that work for everyone, we can promote greaterequity and inclusion in all aspects of society.
2 Inclusive design principles and practices
2.1 Historical development of inclusive design principles
The principles of inclusive design have a rich historical development, dating back to the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s (Frieden, 2019). During this period, advocates forpeople with disabilities began pushing for greater accessibility in public spaces andaccommodations, which helped to spur the development of early inclusive design principles. Inthe 1980s and 1990s, inclusive design principles became more formally articulated and applied inpractice.
Universal design emerged as a framework for designing products, environments, and systems that can be used by as many people as possible, regardless of their abilities or backgrounds(Mace, 1998). The goal of universal design is to create a built environment that is inherently accessible to everyone, rather than relying on retrofitting accommodations after the fact. In the 2000s, inclusive design principles began to be applied more broadly across industries, including technology and digital design. The development of accessible technology standards, such as the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), helped to formalize inclusive design principles in the digital space (Clark, 2019). Additionally, the rise of user-centered designmethodologies, which prioritize the needs and experiences of diverse users, has helped to further embed inclusive design principles in design practice (Kujala, 2011). Today, inclusive design principles continue to evolve and expand, as designers and advocates strive to create more equitable and accessible products, services, and environments (Duffy & McDonagh, 2017).
2.2 Key figures and organizations in the field
In recent years, inclusive design has become an essential consideration for companies across various industries, as it allows for the creation of products and services that cater to a broader range of users, including those with disabilities (Burgstahler, 2015). This section highlights examples of companies that have successfully implemented inclusive design, showcasing the value of this approach in their products and services.
Microsoft has been a pioneer in embracing inclusive design by establishing a dedicated team that focuses on creating accessible features for its products (Hendricks, 2019). Some of thesefeatures include high contrast modes, closed captioning, and speech recognition (Hendricks, 2019). Additionally, the company provides training and resources for developers to help themdesign more accessible products (Chourasia, 2018).
IBM is another company with a longstanding commitment to developing technology that caters to people with disabilities (Slatin & Rush, 2016). The organization has integrated inclusivedesign principles into its products and services, such as the accessibility checker tool, whichenables designers to evaluate their digital content for accessibility issues (Slatin & Rush, 2016).
Airbnb has also recognized the importance of inclusive design and incorporated it into itsplatform (Fletcher, 2017). For example, users can filter search results based on accessibility needs, and Airbnb provides a detailed accessibility page for each listing (Fletcher, 2017). Thesefeatures make it easier for people with disabilities to find suitable accommodations on the platform.
Target, a leading retail company, has implemented inclusive design principles in its physicalstores to enhance accessibility (Clement & Mizrahi, 2020). The stores now have wider aisles for wheelchair users, lower shelves for better visibility, and inclusive clothing lines that cater to awider range of customers (Clement & Mizrahi, 2020).
Finally, Procter & Gamble, a consumer goods company, has also emphasized the importance of inclusive design by establishing a dedicated team for this purpose (Chesney, 2019). One notable example of its inclusive design approach is the Gillette Treo razor, which was specifically designed for caregivers to use on people with disabilities (Chesney, 2019).
2.2.1 Case study 1 Apple
Inclusive design has emerged as a critical aspect of product development and branding, as itfosters a more diverse and accessible user experience (Burgstahler, 2015). Apple is a company that exemplifies this focus on inclusive design, integrating it into its products, services, and brandin various ways. This subsection discusses the key aspects of Apple's inclusive design principlesand their impact on the company's success.
Apple has long been recognized as a leader in providing accessibility features for its products (Hollier, 2017). Examples of these features include VoiceOver, a screen-reading technology thatoffers spoken descriptions of on-screen content for users with visual impairments (Hollier, 2017), and Dynamic Type, which enables users to adjust the size of text to enhance readability(McCarthy, 2016). By incorporating these features, Apple has broadened its customer base and established a more inclusive brand.
Inclusive advertising is another area where Apple has excelled, featuring diverse groups of people, such as individuals with disabilities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and people from various racial and ethnic backgrounds in its marketing campaigns (Mallon, 2018). This approach not onlyshowcases the company's commitment to inclusivity but also sends a message that Apple'sproducts and services are intended for everyone (Mallon, 2018).
Apple's design aesthetics are centered around simplicity, a key principle of inclusive design (Lidwell, Holden, & Butler, 2010). By minimizing clutter and unnecessary elements, the company's products are more user-friendly for individuals with a variety of abilities and backgrounds (Lidwell et al., 2010). This focus on simplicity has been crucial in enhancing the accessibility and usability of Apple's products.
In addition to its product design, Apple has also been proactive in adopting corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives that promote inclusivity and sustainability (Carroll & Shabana,2010). For instance, the company has committed
to using 100% renewable energy in its operations (Apple, 2020) and has established a Supplier Code of Conduct outlining expectations for fair labor practices (Apple, 2021). These efforts contribute to a more responsible and inclusive brand image.
2.3 Current inclusive design practices in various domains
2.3.1 Typography
Inclusive design in typography has become increasingly important as designers strive to create content that caters to a diverse range of readers, including those with visual impairments, cognitive disabilities, or dyslexia (Bouma, 2018). Figure 1 below represents letters and symbols confused people aged 13 to 45 who did not identify as having a disability. This subsectiondiscusses the ways in which inclusive design principles can be incorporated into typography to enhance accessibility and readability for all users.
Figure 1: letters and symbols confused people aged 13 to 45 (Vision Australia, 2022)Font choice plays a crucial role in enhancing readability for a diverse audience. Researchsuggests that selecting legible and clear fonts, as opposed to decorative or ornate typefaces, can greatly improve readability for individuals with visual impairments (Bernard et al., 2002). Figure 2below illustrates the difference between a suitable and non-suitable font.
Figure 2: Suitable fonts (Vision Australia, 2022)Moreover, fonts with a high x-height, which refers to the height of lowercase letters, have been found to be more accessible for readers with visual impairments (Arditi, 2004). Figure 3
bellow depicts the x-height.
Figure 3: X-height (Vision Australia, 2022)Font size is another important factor in creating accessible typography. The recommendedminimum font size for body text is typically 16pt, although larger sizes may be necessary for readerswith visual impairments (Arditi, 2004). Ensuring that text is large enough to be read easily is anessential aspect of inclusive design in typography.
Contrast is a key component of accessible typography, as it directly impacts the readability of text, especially for readers with visual impairments (Arditi & Cho, 2005). Designers shouldensure that there is sufficient contrast between text and background colors to make contenteasily readable.
Line spacing is also an important consideration in inclusive typography. Appropriate line spacingcan enhance readability for readers with cognitive disabilities or dyslexia (Wery & Diliberto, 2017).Research suggests that a line spacing of 1.5 or 2 can improve readability by making it easier todistinguish between lines of text (Wery & Diliberto, 2017).
Text alignment is another aspect of typography that can impact accessibility. Left- aligned text isgenerally easier to read for most readers (Dyson, 2014). Justified text, which can create uneven spacing between words, may be challenging for some readers to comprehend (Dyson, 2014).
Tracking refers to the horizontal spacing between letters and it is important to be considered whencreating a proper an inclusive text (Vision Australia, 2022). Figure 4 below, presents the optimumtracking
Figure 4: Optimum tracking for inclusive design. (Vision Australia, 2022)The use of color in typography should also be carefully considered to ensure accessibility for allusers. Designers should avoid using color as the sole means of conveying information, as somereaders may struggle to distinguish between certain colors (Brettel et al., 1997). Instead, colorshould be used in conjunction with other design elements to guarantee that all readers canunderstand the content (Brettel et al., 1997).
2.3.2 Web design
The history of inclusive web design has evolved in response to a growing recognition of the importance of accessibility and inclusion in all aspects of society (W3C, 2018). The development of guidelines and technologies, such as the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), hassupported these goals (W3C, 2018). As technology continues to advance, it is likely that we will see further progress in the area of inclusive web design, focusing on making digital content and services accessible to as many people as possible (Henry et al., 2014).
Inclusive web design has become a critical aspect of web development, with numerous bestpractices and case studies highlighting successful examples of inclusive websites andapplications (Petrie & Kheir, 2007). Current best practices in inclusive web design include using clear and simple language, ensuring keyboard accessibility, providing alternative text for images, captions for videos, choosing colors carefully, and using accessible forms (Zeng et al., 2015).
The implementation of inclusive web design can also have a significant impact on search engine optimization (SEO) (Chang et al., 2014). By improving the accessibility and usability of a website, inclusive web design can positively affect search engine rankings (Chang et al., 2014).Additionally, accessible websites are more likely to be shared on social media, leading to increasedtraffic and higher search engine rankings (Chang et al., 2014).
Inclusive web design can improve page load speed, which is a critical factor in search engine ranking (Lighthouse, 2020). Websites that load quickly are more likely to be ranked higher in search results (Lighthouse, 2020). Design techniques such as optimizing image sizes, minifying code, and leveraging caching can contribute to improved page load speed and boost search engine rankings (Lighthouse, 2020).
Mobile optimization is another critical factor in search engine ranking, and inclusive web design canimpact this as well (McNair et al., 2018). Websites that are optimized for mobile devices are more likely tobe ranked higher in mobile search results (McNair et al., 2018). By using responsive design andensuring that content is easily accessible on mobile devices, inclusive web design can improve mobile optimization and boost search engine rankings (McNair et al., 2018).
User engagement is also a critical factor in search engine ranking, and inclusive web design can impact this by creating accessible and user-friendly websites (Crescenzi et al., 2013). Websites that engage users and keep them on the site for longer can lead to higher search engine rankings, as search engines take user engagement into account when ranking websites(Crescenzi et al., 2013). Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 below illustrate some examples of an inclusive web design.
Figure 5: Inclusive design webpage format. (Chichioco, 2022)Figure 6: Inclusive web design: dialog box format. (Chichioco, 2022)Figure 7: Inclusive web design: text font size. (Chichioco, 2022)Figure 8: Inclusive web design: Button format. (Chichioco, 2022)To sum up, inclusive web design can have a significant impact on search engine optimization (SEO) by improving accessibility, page load speed, mobile optimization, and user engagement(Chang et al., 2014; Crescenzi et al., 2013; Lighthouse, 2020; McNair et al., 2018). Byimplementing best practices in inclusive web design, websites can improve their SEO, leading to higher search engine rankings and increased visibility, ultimately helping businesses reach a wider audience and achieve their marketing goals.
2.3.3 Digital Marketing
Inclusive web design is critical for effective digital marketing as it allows brands to communicate their message and values to a diverse range of users (Henry, Abou- Zahra, & Brewer, 2014).Design elements such as colour, typography, imagery, and layout can be used to convey a brand's message and values to users of all abilities (Petrie & Kheir, 2007). Inclusive web design can impact digital marketing in several ways, including brand identity, colour and imagery, typography, andaccessibility (Zeng et al., 2015).
Brands can use inclusive web design to create a cohesive brand identity that resonates with users of all abilities, leading to increased engagement and loyalty (Henry et al., 2014). Colour and imagery are critical design elements that can be used to convey emotions, evoke a senseof inclusivity, and communicate brand values (Petrie & Kheir, 2007). For example, using images of diverse people can communicate that a brand values diversity and inclusivity (Zeng et al., 2015).
Typography plays a significant role in communicating a brand's message and values through the use of accessible hierarchy and legibility (Petrie & Kheir, 2007). By using typography that is easy to read and understand, designers can create a more inclusive experience for users (Zeng et al.,2015). Accessibility in web design ensures that a brand's website is available to all users, further reinforcing their values of inclusivity and accessibility (Henry et al., 2014).
Different design styles and approaches, such as skeuomorphism, flat design, and neumorphism,can be used in various digital products, such as websites, apps, and user interfaces (Norman, 2013). Skeuomorphism involves using digital elements that mimic real-world objects or materials,often making digital products feel more familiar and intuitive to users (Norman, 2013). Flat design ischaracterized by a clean, minimalist look that uses simple shapes, colours, and typography,creating a sense of clarity and simplicity (Chaparro, 2016). Figure 9 below illustrates a google chrome icon using both skeuomorphism and flat design.
Figure 9: Google chrome icon using both skeuomorphism and flat design. (Diana Eka Martiandani Follow User Interface & Graphic Designer)Neumorphism, a recent trend, combines elements of both skeuomorphism and flat design, creating a sense of depth and texture while maintaining a minimalist aesthetic (Taabassum,2020).
Each design style has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the best approach dependson the specific product and user needs (Norman, 2013). Figure 10 below, illustrates all threetypes of design.
Figure 10: Comparison of all three types of design. (Singh, 2022)2.4 Debates and challenges
Despite its growing popularity and recognition, implementing inclusive design can be a challenging and contentious process. One of the primary debates centers around the definition of "inclusivity" itself. Critics argue that "inclusive design" can sometimes be reduced to a checklist of technical specifications, rather than a holistic approach that considers the needs and experiences of diverse users (Simplicio et al., 2019). Others point out that inclusive design often assumes a Western, able- bodied perspective and may overlook the needs of marginalized groups, such as people with low literacy, non-Western cultures, or people living in poverty (Jain et al., 2018). Additionally, some argue that the costs of implementing inclusive design can be prohibitive, particularly for smaller businesses or organizations with limited resources (Wilkinson,2018).
Another challenge in implementing inclusive design is ensuring that diverse user perspectivesare genuinely incorporated into the design process. Simply soliciting user feedback may not be enough; designers must also be able to interpret and prioritize that feedback effectively (Hempler& Iversen, 2015). Additionally, inclusive design requires a shift away from traditional design practicesthat are centered on "average" users and their needs, towards a more user-centered approach that acknowledges the diversity of human experiences (Wobbrock, 2019). This can be a difficultadjustment for designers who are used to designing for a narrow, homogenous user base.
Finally, there is the challenge of measuring the effectiveness of inclusive design. While there is growing evidence that inclusive design can improve usability and accessibility for diverse users,it can be difficult to quantify the social impact of such design approaches (Friedman et al., 2021). Additionally, inclusive design can be difficult to evaluate in isolation from other factors that affect user experience, such as social and cultural contexts.
Despite these challenges, advocates for inclusive design argue that it is a necessary step towardscreating more equitable and accessible environments for all users. By taking a more holistic and user-centered approach to design, inclusive design has
the potential to improve the lives of people with disabilities and other marginalized groups, while also benefitting the broader community (Simplicio et al., 2019).
Furthermore, it is debated that there could be an extra profit generated by following inclusivedesign practises.
One approach to generating profit through inclusive web design is by offering accessibility audits (Williams, 2020). Many businesses may not be aware of the importance of inclusive webdesign or how to implement it effectively (Martinez, 2021). As a result, accessibility audits can help businesses identify areas for improvement and create more accessible websites, making this a valuable and potentially profitable service (Smith, 2021).